Migration and Migrants: The Ongoing Saga of Deprivation

Paper Code: AIJACLAV26RP2025

Category: Research Paper

Date of Publication: Nov 19, 2025

Citation: Dr. Nabanita Sen, “Migration and Migrants: The Ongoing Saga of Deprivation", 5, AIJACLA, 283, 283-290 (2025), <https://www.aequivic.in/post/migration-and-migrants-the-ongoing-saga-of-deprivation>

Author Details: Dr. Nabanita Sen, Assistant Professor (Law), Xavier Law School, St. Xavier’s University Kolkata, WB, India

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Abstract

Migrants constituting a large majority of the global population comprise of the displaced, returned, resettled, reintegrated masses of people who in order to find a source of sustenance, temporarily or permanently, relocate to countries that pay high wages to their expat workers. Differences in economic context, social recognition along with a contemplation of an assured future drives the vulnerable migrants to cross borders for subsistence. The policies framed for migrants must ensure a comprehensive social management framework while facilitating and regulating human mobility by protecting rights and promoting social harmony.  Furthermore, the practices relating to migrants and migration policies must address social interactions, inclusions and integration of aspects concerning human rights, cultural unification, social welfare and equity. The chapter attempts to explore the process of migration, investigate plight of migrant laborers, examine the effectiveness of the existing policy framework and thereby propose strategies to secure life and livelihood of the unheard population. This calls for a comprehensive and holistic approach to ensuring human rights-based public policy for the migrant population.

Keywords:- Migration, Migrants, Deprivation, Human rights.

Paper Code: AIJACLAV26RP2025

INTRODUCTION

In the words of William L. Swing, Former IOM Director General:

Migration is a process, not a problem.

The intersectional course of human migration is enthralling and exceedingly entrancing to a nation's economy. It has been an excruciating reality across occupational sectors of the society. Every day, every hour, and every minute, people are displaced or compelled to migrate as a result of socioeconomic turmoil that percolates through the social structure, and vulnerable communities are the worst victims, whether migration is internal or external, emigration or immigration, return or seasonal migration. Often, the distressed and debased migrant workers are in the clutches of fatality, gripped with social injustice. This precarious state of vulnerability exposes their suffering and exacerbates hardship.

The World Bank, in many instances, advocated for several governments to expedite labor mobility and reckoned that migration would substantiate financial capacity, migrant choice and pre-requisites[1] for nation’s prosperity[2]. Millions of migrant workers are exposed to multiple hardships amid the Covid-19 pandemic. Irrespective of gender and nationality, all migrant workers seek protection and treatment with equality, dignity and respect while ensuring pragmatic solutions in the form of social policies, as they have been the mainstay of several sectors of a nation's economy. The Agenda for Sustainable Development (2030) recognized migration as ‘powerful driver of sustainable development’[3]. The Constitution of India, regarded as the fundamental legislation, lays down the Fundamental Rights of citizens in Part III and the Directive Principles of State Policy in Part IV, forming nation's ‘Magna Carta’. Contextually, Article 21 mentions that it ensures the right to dignified life and personal liberty,[4] including the right to livelihood of individuals. The right to live with dignity persist in the cluster of ‘Right to Life’. In People’s Union for Democratic Rights vs. Union of India[5], Apex Court observed that default on minimum wages to be paid to workers would violate the ‘right to life’. The chapter seeks to hold the tragic tales of the deprivation of destitute migrants from significant welfare policies designed for their social security and thereby tries to sketch the significance of the migrant community in the sustainable development of the ecosystem. This is an attempt to portray the interwoven relationship between migration[6] and welfare policies, wherein power dynamics often shape the freedom of movement of migrant workers given the existing social policies.

EXPLORING EXISTING GOVERNANCE POLICIES AND LEGAL FRAMEWORK

With circumscribed access to social assistance policies, labor migrants often encounter major legal and social security challenges about their nationality status, duration of employment, and place of residence. This paves the way to further exploitation of the exploited community who happen to be marginalized all through. Social protection schemes persist ineffective, inadequate and inutile to the extent of coverage and co-ordination in terms of limited amenities and bleak livelihood alternatives for migrant vulnerable population. The absence of systematic social protection mechanisms addresses and triggers the economic crisis of migrants that the nation continues to endure. S. Irudaya Rajan, Chairman of the International Institute of Migration and Development, in his work related to migration has focused on the inadequacy of data on short-term and circular migration in India while observing migration as underscoring the invisibility of this category of migrants in framing welfare policy and development schemes of respective state governments[7].

The Contract (Regulation and Prevention) Act, 1970, and the Inter-State Migrants Labour (Regulation, Employment and Conditions of Service) Act, 1979, set out to confer the entitlements and privileges of workers engaged by contractors to secure dignity of workmen[8]. Non-implementation and non-enforcement of these provisions by private contractors and State agencies amounts to a gross violation of their right “to live with human dignity” as treasured under Article 21 of the Constitution of India. The content in Article 19 (1) (d) deals with freedom of movement and Article 19 (1) (g) emphasizes on freedom of trade, profession, occupation and business. Further, Articles 41, 43 and 43B of the Constitution of India vests duty on State to generate employment opportunities, particularly in rural areas, and provide a living wage to the workers in conformance to the economic capacity of the State. Article 217 read together with List 1 in the Seventh Schedule of the Constitution of India strikingly states that ‘Item 81’ dealing with ‘inter-state migration’ as well as ‘inter-state quarantine’ remains under the exclusive authority and responsibility of the Central Government, but that does not absolve the State Government from discharging its responsibility towards the distressed migrant population. However, the list of state powers explicitly does not mention ‘inter-state migrants. The Concurrent List involving the Centre and States to legislate and administer includes ‘item 22’, which cites ‘trade unions, industrial and labor disputes’, while ‘item 24’ mentions ‘welfare of labor’ and allied issues. These provisions, to a large extent, have benefitted the organized labour segment, but the amorphous, vulnerable informal migrant workers hardly taste the cream and are always the demeaned, deserted lot.

The Inter-State Migrant Workmen (Regulation of Employment and Conditions of Service) Act, 1979, outlines mandatory provisions relating to registration and license of labor contractors which has to be secured from their home states and the host states, respectively, to export workers to other states. Those contractors employing more than five migrant laborers are bound to provide proper wages and shelter in housing, medical care, displacement allowance, passbook, and anything else initiated by the government occasionally. The Chief Labour Commissioner (Central) is responsible for implementing the enactment. However, the CLC hardly has many offices all over India and rarely finds time for the non-enfranchised lot, which, if considered timely, would not have exacerbated to such an unmanageable, devastating proportion.

Time and again, inequalities in the work domain get akin to social identities[9] that tend to enhance the vulnerability of a large number of workers.

SOCIAL ISSUES IN FOCUS

Once Guy Ryder, the ILO Director-General, remarked:

“We should not treat migrant workers any different from any other worker. They are as much entitled to have their livelihoods protected and they are entitled to have their health protected”[10].

With multiple vulnerabilities, a migrant worker’s suffering aggravates when he is compelled to do away with his basic rights, though rests on equality clause, as provided in the Constitution of India. Moreover, research findings on four Southern European countries conducted by ILO state that “migrants take jobs that the locals refuse. It’s simply a matter of substitution.”[11] A survey conducted in late 2020 by the Harmony Alliance and Monash Migration and Inclusion Centre, reports that a third of migrant and refugee women experiences various forms of violence either domestically and/or from family[12]. Amid the second wave of COVID-19, records document a massive spike in coronavirus cases; the CMIE reported a total population of 2.25 crore lost jobs in April-May 2021, 1.72 crore records of daily wage earners[13]. Geographers seem keen on inter-regional, urban-rural, and rural-urban mobility in societies with low birth and death rates where migration often causes population change.[14] Against this background, Ravi Srivastava, the Director of the Centre for Employment Studies at the Institute for Human Development, Delhi, observes that due to exacerbated socio-economic vulnerability and lack of inclusion in socio-welfareistic infrastructure, the circular migrants easily get to the grips of overlapping precarity[15]. Workers in informal sector with women unequally are vulnerable in particular[16].

REGULARIZING SOCIAL BEHAVIOUR

Migrants, being the cardinal players in the unimpaired process of societal development, cannot be ignored. Migrant workers contribute directly to the growth and development of the destination country, while the country of origin gain from remittances[17] during migration. Education of children of migrant workers is often strained, leading to child labor while exposing the economy to menace. The inter-governmental negotiation agreement known as the Global Compact for Safe, Orderly and Regular Migration describes “migration is a multi-dimensional reality that cannot be addressed by one government policy sector alone.”[18] The Central Government had put forward ‘The Occupational Safety, Health and Working Conditions Code, 2020’ (OSHWCC) for consideration in order to replace the existing laws in force for regulating the health and safety provisions in establishments including mines and docks consisting of ten or more workers. The proposed Bill unified 13 labor laws in response to health, safety and working conditions. Shashi Tharoor, the former Union Minister of State for External Affairs, remarked that wage grievances of Indian workers compelled to return to their native place because of sudden outbreak of COVID-19, should be recorded as of crucial importance while dealing with the wage theft issue[19]. There has been several instances where many employers in Gulf countries retrenched migrant workers without paying them their entitled wages and other entitlements so promised or contracted. A huge proportion of migrant workers have been repatriated without their due salaries and wages being paid, reflecting an exponential hike in the last few months. Wage theft, being critical, implies a failure of fair practice to pay legally mandated wages to workers while affecting millions of Asian migrant workers. Of almost 35 million migrant workers employed in Arab countries, 10 million are Indian[20].

Glaring examples of injustice find prominence in terms of reduced wages, delayed wages, and no wages to the substantial category of migrant workers. Despite multifarious assurances in the form of welfare policies, judicial pronouncements, and governmental schemes, their uncertainty remains focused, with the migration crisis being unabated.

SOCIAL RELATIONSHIP MANAGEMENT: DEPARTMENTAL CO-ORDINATION

Subsequently, this approach calls for extending social assistance, including high involvement and coordination among the Central Statistics Office (CSO), Congressional Budget Office (CBO), Faith-based organizations (FBOs) and non-governmental organizations (NGOs). Respective governments should act according to the recommendations of UNESCO, UNICEF, and the Working Group on Migration while effectively implementing the same. Co-ordination between Centre-State and inter-state relations in reforms and policy interventions would, to a large extent, remain significant in the segment of policy making.

The National Human Rights Commission (NHRC) sought attention of Supreme Court to safeguard the interest of the hapless migrants who happen to be vulnerable in terms of social protection and security. In some instances, the High Courts of Karnataka, Madras, and Gujarat had issued directions and, at times, took suo motu control over the crisis by extending assistance to the stranded migrant[21] workforce to ensure safe home transport. According to International Labour Organisation (ILO), it has been observed that as an outcome of pandemic millions of migrant workers have lost jobs and compelled to return to home country[22], being exposed to unemployment and abject poverty. However, statistics of migration in India inferred from census and National Sample Survey Organization often fails to consider short-term migration within its study.

RESOLVING SOCIAL RISKS: THROUGH PROPOSED STRATEGIES

Unfortunately, a considerable population of society is vulnerable to an uncertain future[23]. A comprehensive social protection policy must be framed in nexus to humane assistance along with developmental discourse for the well-being of vulnerable migrant communities. In addition, the schemes encompassing legal provisions need to be formulated in consonance with international standards and fair practices. Rights-based social protection policies providing access to employment, income security, and healthcare safety should be effectively framed in order to promote capacity building. In terms of financial assistance, global funding banks should be established under the auspices of International Labour Organization (ILO), World Bank and International Organization for Migration (IOM) to extend support to the unshielded, repatriated migrant workers to return from the country of destination. Promoting a comprehensive financial policy framework, including benefits to render social protection to migrant workers and their family members. Services related to public health systems, food nutritional schemes, water and sanitation programs, employment policies, and livelihood strategies seek significant implementation and effective monitoring. Undeniably, ensuring and enforcing the entitled rights of migrants calls for reforms and measures, majority of which is already existing[24] in the system. There lies the need for social protection measures to be ‘portable’[25] in nature with easy transfer of financial support[26].

CONCLUSION

The phenomenon of migration excruciates the pain of an identity crisis devoid of social protection. An egalitarian state paves the way for social integration of migration with a close-knit approach to development. This implies that if the migrant crisis is poorly dealt with and governed by the Government, then such a course of action might have an exceedingly detrimental effect on the developmental process of a nation, thereby posing a pernicious, irreconcilable threat to the entire migrant community. However, migrants serve as development actors or agents who seek to be engaged, enabled, and empowered in the governance for sustainable development. Migrants are constantly deprived of various social policies that pose threats in the form of daily challenges in the domain of identity and income. Addressing and redressing each challenge requires varied outlooks, many of which cater beyond improving income[27]. However, studies reveal that the welfare schemes, though intentionally well designed, had substantial hitchs and pitfalls in the process of implementation that resulted in the deprivation of migrant workers from various relief schemes, especially framed for their support and protection.

Instances of gross injustice with human rights violation of migrant workers remain widely debated as well as  deliberated. The migration crisis attempts to address the deep-rooted social inequalities that are mostly unreported but prevalent with traces of a lengthy historical background. A framework of disaggregated data on migrants to understand, evaluate, and differentiate migrant status from that of an ordinary worker might ensure the unerring formulation of a comprehensive social welfare policy. Nation-centric social protection policies should be sketched in tune with international human rights standards. Strengthen livelihood opportunities, acknowledge social inequalities, and ensure social security through a right-based framework. Seek immediate responses intended for a sustainable economy. A holistic integrated approach of social protection coupled with humanitarian provision extends to be regarded as a viable perspective towards the agony and anxiety of migrant worker’s community.

Bibliography

1. A. Deshpande and R. Ramachandran, “Is COVID-19 “The Great Leveler”? The Critical Role of Social Identity in Lockdown-induced Job Losses” Ashoka University Working Papers 389 (2020), available at <https://www.ashoka.edu.in/page/CEDA-working-papers-389> (last visited on August 16, 2020).

2. Ambar Kumar Ghosh and Anasua Basu Ray Chaudhury, “Need for a holistic perspective towards India’s migrant workers”, Observer Research Foundation (ORF), September 28, 2021, available at <https://www.orfonline.org/ expert-speak/need-for-a-holistic-perspective-towards-indians-migrant-workers/> (last visited on March 7, 2022).

3. Arjan de Haan, “Labour Migrants During the Pandemic: A Comparative Perspective”, The Indian Journal of Labour Economics (2020) available at <https://doi.org/10.1007/s41027-020-00283-w> (last visited March 8, 2022).

4. Ben Rogaly, Daniel Coppard, et.al., “Seasonal Migration and Welfare/Illfare in Eastern India: A Social Analysis”, in Arjan de Haan and Ben Rogaly (eds.), Labour Mobility and Rural Society 108 (Routledge, London, 2015).

5. Ejaz Maqbool, Akriti Chaubey, et.al., “How the Supreme Court and the High Courts have dealt with the worst migrant crisis faced by the nation” in Bharat Bhushan (ed.), Media, Migrants and the Pandemic in India - A Reader 42 (Routledge, London, 2022).

6. Emilio Reynieri (ILO), “Migrants in Irregular Employment in the Mediterranean Countries of the European Union” 41 International Migration (Geneva, 2001). 

7. Harshita Sinha, “India’s e-Shram portal should offer disaggregated data on migration to aid last-mile welfare”, Scroll.in, March 14, 2022, available at <https://scroll.in/article/1018598/indias-e-shram-portal-should-offer-disaggregated-data-on-migration-to-aid-last-mile-welfare> (last visited on March 14, 2022).

8. IOM UN Migration, Migration, Sustainable Development and the 2030 Agenda, available at <https://www.iom.int/migration-sustainable-development-and-2030-agenda> (last visited on March 10, 2022).

9. Institute for Human Development /R. Srivastava, “Vulnerable Internal Migrants in India and Portability of Social Security and Entitlements” Working Paper Series. WP02/2020 (Centre for Employment Studies, New Delhi, 2020).

10. International Labour Organization (ILO), Social Protection for migrant workers: A necessary response to the Covid-19 crisis (June 24,2020) available at <https://www.ilo.org/secsoc/information-resources/publications-and-tools/Brochures/WCMS_748979/lang--en/index.htm> (last visited March 8, 2022).

11. Marie Segrave, Chloe Keel, et.al., “One third of migrant and refugee women experience domestic violence, major survey reveals”, The Conversation, June 30, 2021, available at <https://theconversation.com/one-third-of-migrant-and-refugee-women-experience-domestic-violence-major-survey-reveals-16361> (last visited on March 7, 2022).

12. N. Castree, R. Kitchin, et.al., Migration: In a Dictionary of Human Geography (Oxford University Press, 2013).

13. S. Shreedharan and J. Jose, “Support for India’s migrants during COVID-19: navigating potential gaps in the system” (2020) available at <https://www.centerforf​inancialinclusion.org/support-for-indias-migrants-during-covid-19-navigating-potential-gaps-in-the-system> (last visited on March 3, 2022).

14. Shruthi Ashok and Prof. Neena Thomas, “A study on issues of inter-state migrant labourers in India” 5(7) International Journal of Scientific & Engineering Research 91 (2014).

15. Sibnath Deb, G. Subhalakshmi, et.al. (eds.), Upholding Justice - Social, Psychological and Legal Perspectives (Routledge, 2020).

16. Sohini Sengupta and Manish K. Jha, “Social Policy, COVID-19 and Impoverished Migrants: Challenges and Prospects in Locked Down India” 2(2) The International Journal of Community and Social Development 152 (2020), available at <https://doi.org/10.1177/2516602620933715> (last visited on February 19, 2024)

17. Srobonti Chattopadhyay, “Covid-19 Pandemic and Migrant workers: India and the World”, in Rajib Bhattacharyya, Ananya Ghosh Dastidar, et.al. (eds.), The COVID-19 Pandemic, India and the World - Economic and Social Policy Perspectives 396 (Routledge, 2021).

18. Sudarshan Maity, Tarak Nath Sahu, et.al., “COVID-19 and Digital Primary Education: Impact and Strategies for Sustainable Development” 7(1) Journal of Development Policy and Practice 10 (2022), available at <https://doi.org/10.1177/24551333211049630> (last visited on March 9, 2024).

19. “Tharoor urges Indian missions in Gulf to record workers’ wage issues during COVID-19”, Onmanorama. July 22, 2020, available at <http://www.onmanorama.com/news/kerala/2020 /07/22/tharoor-indian-mission-gulf-countries-covid19.html> (last visited on March 3, 2022).

20. United Nations Development Programme, Human Developments Reports, Progress against the multiple dimensions of poverty was made before the pandemic – but now it is at risk. (2020)., available at <http://www.hdr.undp.org/en/content/progress-against-multiple-dimensions-poverty-was-made-pandemic-%E2%80 % 93-now-it-risk> (last visited on March 8, 2022).

21. U.O. Bhuyan, “COVID-19: Remittance Dip over Migrant Workers’ Wage Theft, Says World Bank”, The Cheer News, July 22, 2020, available at <https://www.thecheernews.com/2020/07/22/covid-19-remittance-dip-over-migrant-workers-wage-theft-says-world-bank/ > (last visited on March 4, 2022).

22. WIEGO, “Informal workers in the COVID-19 crisis: A global picture of sudden impact and long term risk” (July, 2020) available at <https://www.wiego.org/resources/informal-workers-covid-19-crisis-global-picture-sudden-impact-and-long-term-risk> (last visited on March 7, 2022).

23. World Bank, Reshaping Economic Geography. World Development Report for 2009, available at <https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/handle/10986/5991> (last visited on March 10, 2022).

24. Y.S. Sharma, “Migrant workers on the brink of another crisis: ILO”, The Economic Times, June 24, 2020, available at<https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/jobs/migrant-workers-on-the-brink-of-another-crisis-ilo/articleshow/76573361.cms> (last visited on March 9, 2022).

[1]Sohini Sengupta and Manish K. Jha, “Social Policy, COVID-19 and Impoverished Migrants: Challenges and Prospects in Locked Down India” 2(2) The International Journal of Community and Social Development 152 (2020), available at <https://doi.org/10.1177/2516602620933715> (last visited on February 19, 2024).

[2]World Bank, Reshaping Economic Geography. World Development Report for 2009, available at <https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/handle/10986/5991> (last visited on March 10, 2022).

[3]IOM UN Migration, Migration, Sustainable Development and the 2030 Agenda, available at <https://www.iom.int/migration-sustainable-development-and-2030-agenda> (last visited on March 10, 2022).

[4]Sibnath Deb, G. Subhalakshmi, et.al. (eds.), Upholding Justice - Social, Psychological and Legal Perspectives (Routledge, 2020).

[5]AIR 1982 SC 1473.

[6]Ben Rogaly, Daniel Coppard, et.al., “Seasonal Migration and Welfare/Illfare in Eastern India: A Social Analysis”, in Arjan de Haan and Ben Rogaly (eds.), Labour Mobility and Rural Society 108 (Routledge, London, 2015).

[7]Harshita Sinha, “India’s e-Shram portal should offer disaggregated data on migration to aid last-mile welfare”, Scroll.in, March 14, 2022, available at <https://scroll.in/article/1018598/indias-e-shram-portal-should-offer-disaggregated-data-on-migration-to-aid-last-mile-welfare> (last visited on March 14, 2022).

[8]Shruthi Ashok and Prof. Neena Thomas, “A study on issues of inter-state migrant labourers in India” 5(7) International Journal of Scientific & Engineering Research 91 (2014).

[9]A. Deshpande and R. Ramachandran, “Is COVID-19 “The Great Leveler”? The Critical Role of Social Identity in Lockdown-induced Job Losses” Ashoka University Working Papers 389 (2020), available at <https://www.ashoka.edu.in/page/CEDA-working-papers-389> (last visited on August 16, 2020).

[10]International Labour Organization (ILO), Social Protection for migrant workers: A necessary response to the Covid-19 crisis (June 24,2020) available at <https://www.ilo.org/secsoc/information-resources/publications-and-tools/Brochures/WCMS_748979/lang--en/index.htm> (last visited March 8, 2022).

[11]Emilio Reynieri (ILO), “Migrants in Irregular Employment in the Mediterranean Countries of the European Union” 41 International Migration (Geneva, 2001). 

[12] Marie Segrave, Chloe Keel, et.al., “One third of migrant and refugee women experience domestic violence, major survey reveals”, The Conversation, June 30, 2021, available at <https://theconversation.com/one-third-of-migrant-and-refugee-women-experience-domestic-violence-major-survey-reveals-16361> (last visited on March 7, 2022).

[13]Ambar Kumar Ghosh and Anasua Basu Ray Chaudhury, “Need for a holistic perspective towards India’s migrant workers”, Observer Research Foundation (ORF), September 28, 2021, available at <https://www.orfonline.org/ expert-speak/need-for-a-holistic-perspective-towards-indians-migrant-workers/> (last visited on March 7, 2022).

[14]N. Castree, R. Kitchin, et.al., Migration: In a Dictionary of Human Geography (Oxford University Press, 2013).

[15] Supra note 3.

[16] WIEGO, “Informal workers in the COVID-19 crisis: A global picture of sudden impact and long term risk” (July, 2020) available at <https://www.wiego.org/resources/informal-workers-covid-19-crisis-global-picture-sudden-impact-and-long-term-risk> (last visited on March 7, 2022).

[17]Srobonti Chattopadhyay, “Covid-19 Pandemic and Migrant workers: India and the World”, in Rajib Bhattacharyya, Ananya Ghosh Dastidar, et.al. (eds.), The COVID-19 Pandemic, India and the World - Economic and Social Policy Perspectives 396 (Routledge, 2021).

[18]Supra note 3

[19]“Tharoor urges Indian missions in Gulf to record workers’ wage issues during COVID-19”, Onmanorama. July 22, 2020, available at <http://www.onmanorama.com/news/kerala/2020/07/22/tharoor-indian-mission-gulf-countries-covid19.html> (last visited on March 3, 2022).

[20]U.O. Bhuyan, “COVID-19: Remittance Dip over Migrant Workers’ Wage Theft, Says World Bank”, The Cheer News, July 22, 2020, available at <https://www.thecheernews.com/2020/07/22/covid-19-remittance-dip-over-migrant-workers-wage-theft-says-world-bank/ > (last visited on March 4, 2022).

[21]Ejaz Maqbool, Akriti Chaubey, et.al., “How the Supreme Court and the High Courts have dealt with the worst migrant crisis faced by the nation” in Bharat Bhushan (ed.), Media, Migrants and the Pandemic in India - A Reader 42 (Routledge, London, 2022).

[22] Y.S. Sharma, “Migrant workers on the brink of another crisis: ILO”, The Economic Times, June 24, 2020, available at<https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/jobs/migrant-workers-on-the-brink-of-another-crisis-ilo/articleshow/76573361.cms> (last visited on March 9, 2022).

[23]Sudarshan Maity, Tarak Nath Sahu, et.al., “COVID-19 and Digital Primary Education: Impact and Strategies for Sustainable Development” 7(1) Journal of Development Policy and Practice 10 (2022), available at <https://doi.org/10.1177/24551333211049630> (last visited on March 9, 2024).

[24]Arjan de Haan, “Labour Migrants During the Pandemic: A Comparative Perspective”, The Indian Journal of Labour Economics (2020) available at <https://doi.org/10.1007/s41027-020-00283-w> (last visited March 8, 2022).

[25]Institute for Human Development /R. Srivastava, “Vulnerable Internal Migrants in India and Portability of Social Security and Entitlements” Working Paper Series. WP02/2020 (Centre for Employment Studies, New Delhi, 2020).

[26]S. Shreedharan and J. Jose, “Support for India’s migrants during COVID-19: navigating potential gaps in the system” (2020) available at <https://www.centerforf​inancialinclusion.org/support-for-indias-migrants-during-covid-19-navigating-potential-gaps-in-the-system> (last visited on March 3, 2022).

[27] United Nations Development Programme, Human Developments Reports, Progress against the multiple dimensions of poverty was made before the pandemic – but now it is at risk. (2020)., available at <http://www.hdr.undp.org/en/content/progress-against-multiple-dimensions-poverty-was-made-pandemic-%E2%80 % 93-now-it-risk> (last visited on March 8, 2022).